Epidermal growth factor receptor mutations and anaplastic lymphoma kinase rearrangements in lung cancer with nodular ground-glass opacity

Low-dose chest computed tomography (CT) for lung cancer screening has increased the detection of solitary pulmonary nodules (SPN) not visualized on chest radiography, and has contributed to a reduction in lung cancer mortality [1]. Some of these visualized nodules are nodular ground-glass opacities (nGGOs). nGGOs on chest CT are defined as hazy, increased attenuation of the lung with preservation of bronchial and vascular margins, and are classified as pure and mixed GGOs, which contain a solid component [2].

Nodular GGOs can be found in eosinophilic lung disease, pulmonary lymphoproliferative disorder, and interstitial fibrosis, with a persistent nGGO being a possible sign of early lung cancer [3]. The natural development of nGGO follows a stepwise progression from atypical adenomatous hyperplasia (AAH) to adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS: formerly bronchioloadenocarcinoma), to microinvasive adenocarcinoma (MIA), and finally to invasive adenocarcinoma (IA) [4]. However, some adenocarcinomas do not follow this pathway, manifesting as consolidation and/or solid mass, with different genetic profiles. Therefore, lung adenocarcinoma exhibits heterogeneity in pathogenesis and progression [5].

Several driver mutations have been identified in lung cancer, such as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and K-ras mutations and anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) rearrangement. Lung cancers expressing EGFR mutations respond well to the EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors [6–8]. The fusion of echinoderm microtubule-associated protein-like 4 (EML4) and ALK gene by rearrangement in non-small cell lung cancer was identified [9] and developed as a target of the ALK tyrosine kinase inhibitor, crizotinib [10, 11]. These biomarkers predict response to these molecular targeting agents and testing for these markers is recommended in lung cancer patients [12, 13], enabling personalized medicine for patients harboring EGFR mutations or ALK gene rearrangements. It is therefore very important to investigate the frequencies and clinical implications of these driver mutations in nGGOs, a specific type of lung adenocarcinoma.

Many studies have reported that EGFR mutations are frequent in lung cancer with nGGOs, even in precancerous lesions such as AAH [14–17]; however, the role of ALK rearrangement in nGGOs remains unknown. We analyzed patients with lung cancer with nodular GGOs to investigate the correlation between biomarker status and clinicopathological and radiologic characteristics and to determine the roles of ALK rearrangements and EGFR mutations in nGGOs.

Lung cancer, in its early stage, can present as nGGOs on chest CT. Lung adenocarcinoma with growth patterns involving the alveolar septum and a relative lack of acinar filling shows GGOs on chest CT, and a high GGO proportion is correlated with good prognosis [27]. Pathology of GGO nodules has shown that the proportion of GGO in nodular adenocarcinomas decreases through the AAH-AIS-MIA-IA pattern of progression [28], and that GGO nodules must undergo in situ changes, since AIS (formerly called BAC) and precancerous lesions such as AAH correspond to pure GGO [15].

The clinicopathologic, radiologic, and molecular biological characteristics of nGGOs are important for our understanding of the mechanism of carcinogenesis and for predicting the chemotherapeutic response. Since the introduction of molecular targeting agents, many groups have studied the EGFR mutation status of nGGOs, but there is little data on ALK rearrangements in nGGOs. EGFR mutations are frequently found in the early stages of nGGO, such as in AAH and AIS, and play an important role in the pathogenesis of adenocarcinoma with GGO patterns. However, the role of ALK rearrangement, another potent driver mutation in adenocarcinoma, has not been described in GGO nodules.

In this study, we investigated the frequencies and clinicopathological characteristics of driver mutations, focusing on ALK rearrangement in resected adenocarcinoma with GGO patterns. To our knowledge, this is the largest comprehensive analysis of lung cancer presenting as GGO nodules. We included lung cancer nodules exhibiting any amount of GGO regardless of its size, thereby investigating the molecular biomarker status of lung cancer at early stages.

Adenocarcinoma with ALK rearrangement is usually found in younger, female patients who have light to no smoking history, and has been reported to have acinar, papillary, cribriform, and signet-ring patterns. The radiological characteristics of lung cancer with ALK rearrangement have hardly been studied, and there is a lack of data concerning the role of ALK rearrangement in nGGO lesions. In one study, Fukui et al. reported that no GGO nodules were found in patients with ALK rearrangement while 50% of adenocarcinomas that did not have ALK rearrangement also had GGO nodules and also EML4-ALK-positive tumors mainly exhibited a solid pattern on CT [29].

In this study, the proportion of ALK-positive nGGO lesions was significantly lower (2.8%) than that obtained in previous studies of a large cohort of adenocarcinomas (3.9-20.4%) (Table 6) [23, 25, 26, 29–32], and was significantly lower than the 6.8% of 395 resected adenocarcinoma patients in our previous study, which included all types of curatively resected adenocarcinoma [23]. This could be indirect evidence of the lower incidence of ALK rearrangements in adenocarcinomas with GGO patterns compared to adenocarcinomas of all types.

It is well known that ALK-positive adenocarcinoma is likely to present a signet-ring cell or cribriform pattern and abundant mucin production on histological analysis [33, 34]: ALK-positive lesions are observed as a solid, rather than a GGO, nodule [29, 35, 36]. This explains the low proportion of ALK-positive patients in this study, which focuses on nGGOs. Fukui et al. studied the radiologic characteristics of 28 ALK-positive adenocarcinomas and revealed no GGO portion [29] and another report on CT characteristics of ALK rearranged advanced NSCLC from Japan also report low frequency of ALK rearrangement (one among 36 cases) [36], consistent with our findings.

We revealed that maximal diameters and the solid portion of nGGOs with ALK rearrangement were significantly larger than were those without ALK rearrangement. All nGGOs with ALK rearrangement were IA (invasive adenocarcinoma) with acinar predominant subtypes (n = 3) and three with cribriform pattern. Patients with ALK-positive lesions showed more advanced pathologic stages than those with EGFR-positive GGOs. Therefore, we suggest ALK rearrangement is associated with cellular and histological type as well as clinical aggressiveness.

Several studies have revealed that adenocarcinomas with ALK rearrangement have more lymph node metastases [23, 25]. Combined with the radiological characteristics discussed above, the ALK-positive adenocarcinoma seems not to follow the stepwise carcinogenesis pattern of AAH-AIS-MIA-IA, but to grow rapidly and bypass the phase of lepidic growth. This assumption is consistent with the histological analysis of ALK-positive adenocarcinomas showing lower frequencies of lepidic growth and AAH/BAC (AIS) in the background of ALK-positive lung adenocarcinomas [35].

Distinct subsets of adenocarcinoma with morphologic differentiation to type II pneumocytes, Clara cells, or non-ciliated bronchioles are thought to originate from the terminal respiratory unit (TRU), and EGFR mutation is involved with early-stage carcinogenesis of TRU-type adenocarcinoma [5, 37]; nGGOs appear to be another marker of TRU-type adenocarcinoma [5].

Thyroid transcription factor-1 (TTF-1) is a marker of TRU-type adenocarcinoma [37, 38], and two studies concerning 11 and 12 ALK-positive patients each revealed TTF-1 positivity in all ALK-positive adenocarcinomas [26, 39]. This finding suggests that this subtype of adenocarcinoma may have TRU-origin histogenesis [39]. However, the low proportion of GGO with ALK rearrangement and the advanced stage in ALK-positive nGGOs found in this study indicates that it is still possible that this subtype may not follow a process of TRU origin. Further pathologic analysis of morphological characteristics is required.

Because the prevalence of adenocarcinoma with ALK rearrangement is low compared to EGFR mutation, studies investigating various characteristics of ALK-positive lung cancer do not gather enough participants to yield consistent results. Previous studies on a large, unselected population of adenocarcinoma with ALK rearrangement reported that patients with ALK-positive lung cancer were younger [23, 29, 30, 32], female [23, 25, 40], and light or non-smokers [23, 25, 29, 30, 32, 40, 41]. We previously reported that ALK-rearranged lung adenocarcinomas of all radiologic types showed higher stage at diagnosis and more solid pattern, were more cribriform, and had a closer relationship with adjacent bronchioles [42] and more frequently positive bronchoscopic findings than EGFR-positive lung adenocarcinoma [43], which suggested more proximal origin of ALK rearranged lung adenocarcinoma than EGFR-positive adenocarcinoma. These findings were consistent with low frequency of ALK rearrangement in nGGOs which presented in peripheral location.

We found no correlation between age, sex, smoking status, and ALK positivity, probably due to the small number of ALK-positive patients and the weak representation of adenocarcinoma, since we enrolled only patients with nGGOs.

We found that EGFR mutation was associated with female, never/light smokers, as expected [44]. The frequency of EGFR mutation in nGGOs in this study was 54.8%, which was relatively high in comparison to other, large cohorts of adenocarcinoma [25, 45–50] (Table 6). However, we could not predict EGFR mutation status by the GGO proportion of nodules or tumor size. EGFR mutation status was not associated with pathologic stage, nodal involvement, or histologic invasiveness.

It is interesting that after stratifying EGFR mutations in exons 19, 20, and 21, only the mutation in exon 21 (mostly L858R) correlated with female gender and never/light smoking status. This result is consistent with other studies of the characteristics of adenocarcinoma and EGFR mutation type [51, 52]. The association between EGFR and female non- or light smoker may be limited to EGFR mutation in exon 21.

According to large cohort studies, EGFR mutations and ALK rearrangements are mutually exclusive. However, several cases of co-incident EGFR mutation and ALK rearrangement have been reported, most of which demonstrated good response to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors [32]. In our study, which recruited participants at the early stage of adenocarcinoma, these molecular biomarkers were mutually exclusive. It is thought that they act through different mechanisms in early carcinogenesis.

The major strength of study is that it is the largest cohort concerning lung cancer with nGGOs. All nodules were resected by curative surgery, which reinforced the accuracy of pathologic and molecular diagnoses of the surgical specimens. Although we collected enough GGO nodules with EGFR mutations in exons 19 and 21, we could not collect sufficient numbers of samples with ALK rearrangement due to the inherent limitation that adenocarcinoma with ALK rearrangement tends to present as solid nodules in chest CT.

ALK rearrangement is rare in lung adenocarcinoma presenting as nGGOs and is associated with a more advanced stage and larger tumor size, suggesting a distinct origin and an aggressive nature in the progression of lung adenocarcinoma. ALK rearrangement may not play an important role in the early pathogenesis of nGGO. It is important to understand the clinicopathological characteristics of nGGOs associated with each driver mutation, as well as their radiologic correlations, when individualizing lung cancer treatments with molecular-targeted therapies.