Table 1 Characteristics in never and ever users of pioglitazone in the unmatched cohort and the propensity score-matched cohort

 Age (years)

63.21

12.53

60.12

10.93

< 0.0001

−30.19

60.44

12.36

60.12

10.93

0.1074

−2.91

 Diabetes duration (years)

5.30

2.90

6.75

2.56

< 0.0001

55.74

6.81

2.77

6.75

2.56

0.2468

−2.15

  I

56,692

32.54

2406

34.74

< 0.0001

2450

35.37

2406

34.74

0.0987

  II

39,108

22.45

1805

26.06

6.70

1701

24.56

1805

26.06

3.39

  III

43,636

25.04

1416

20.44

−16.08

1502

21.69

1416

20.44

−3.10

  IV

34,797

19.97

1299

18.76

2.11

1273

18.38

1299

18.76

0.94

  Taipei

56,595

32.48

2711

39.14

< 0.0001

2689

38.82

2711

39.14

0.9897

  Northern

22,911

13.15

716

10.34

−7.30

720

10.40

716

10.34

−0.17

  Central

29,751

17.08

1142

16.49

2.12

1139

16.45

1142

16.49

0.03

  Southern

30,602

17.56

873

12.60

−21.02

870

12.56

873

12.60

0.23

  Kao-Ping and Eastern

34,374

19.73

1484

21.43

4.32

1508

21.77

1484

21.43

−0.91

  Hypertension

137,813

79.10

5486

79.21

0.8224

−1.76

5552

80.16

5486

79.21

0.1634

−2.40

  Dyslipidemia

128,253

73.61

5633

81.33

< 0.0001

21.24

5568

80.39

5633

81.33

0.1603

2.41

  Obesity

10,282

5.90

455

6.57

0.0209

1.40

499

7.20

455

6.57

0.1399

−2.48

  Nephropathy

35,634

20.45

1313

18.96

0.0025

−6.46

1319

19.04

1313

18.96

0.8966

−0.23

  Eye disease

25,172

14.45

1942

28.04

< 0.0001

27.93

1929

27.85

1942

28.04

0.8056

0.39

  Stroke

48,431

27.80

1552

22.41

< 0.0001

−16.40

1544

22.29

1552

22.41

0.8704

0.16

  Ischemic heart disease

77,411

44.43

2746

39.65

< 0.0001

−10.82

2808

40.54

2746

39.65

0.2824

−1.89

  Peripheral arterial disease

35,540

20.40

1473

21.27

0.0783

0.08

1478

21.34

1473

21.27

0.9174

−0.35

  Insulin

6662

3.82

184

2.66

< 0.0001

−18.45

178

2.57

184

2.66

0.7493

0.46

  Sulfonylurea

99,885

57.33

4780

69.02

< 0.0001

19.40

4812

69.48

4780

69.02

0.5557

−1.15

  Metformin

120,594

69.21

5022

72.51

< 0.0001

−11.46

4995

72.12

5022

72.51

0.6082

0.92

  Meglitinide

8434

4.84

466

6.73

< 0.0001

5.45

441

6.37

466

6.73

0.3905

1.35

  Acarbose

12,820

7.36

916

13.23

< 0.0001

11.30

906

13.08

916

13.23

0.8015

0.35

  Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

85,452

49.04

3013

43.50

< 0.0001

−14.74

3070

44.33

3013

43.50

0.3291

−1.61

  Tobacco abuse

1034

0.59

37

0.53

0.5282

−1.05

55

0.79

37

0.53

0.0597

−3.68

  Alcohol-related diagnoses

4496

2.58

146

2.11

0.0147

−2.00

139

2.01

146

2.11

0.6752

0.66

  Hypoglycemia

3803

2.18

157

2.27

0.6387

0.94

179

2.58

157

2.27

0.2244

−2.15

  Head injury

3935

2.26

155

2.24

0.9102

−4.02

122

1.76

155

2.24

0.0452

3.23

  Parkinson’s disease

5702

3.27

128

1.85

< 0.0001

−9.07

129

1.86

128

1.85

0.9498

−0.06

  Benign breast conditions

34,506

19.80

1319

19.04

0.1192

0.82

1282

18.51

1319

19.04

0.4208

1.48

  Cancers other than breast cancer prior to baseline

19,146

10.99

614

8.87

< 0.0001

−8.16

645

9.31

614

8.87

0.3595

−1.47

  Potential detection bias

85,454

49.05

3093

44.66

< 0.0001

−9.97

3018

43.57

3093

44.66

0.1994

2.28

  Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor/angiotensin receptor blocker

114,565

65.75

4878

70.43

< 0.0001

10.05

4949

71.46

4878

70.43

0.1840

−2.12

  Calcium channel blocker

107,812

61.88

4036

58.27

< 0.0001

−10.19

4144

59.83

4036

58.27

0.0620

−3.25

  Statin

91,883

52.74

4694

67.77

< 0.0001

34.08

4709

67.99

4694

67.77

0.7849

−0.43

  Fibrate

54,451

31.25

2593

37.44

< 0.0001

13.21

2583

37.29

2593

37.44

0.8606

0.24

  Aspirin

95,675

54.91

3737

53.96

0.1169

−5.02

3767

54.39

3737

53.96

0.6089

−0.96

  Estrogen

86,135

49.44

3422

49.41

0.9627

3.49

3427

49.48

3422

49.41

0.9323

0.08