Fig. 2

Overview of the gradient boosting machine (GBM) model. A Variables included in the model and their relative influence. B Illustrative example of the proposed GBM model, which builds the model by combining predictions from stumps of massive decision-tree-base-learners in a step-wise fashion. Prediction score is estimated by adding up the predictions (red number) attached to the terminal nodes of all 2000 decision trees where the patient traverses. C Performance of GBM model as compared with that of American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system and multifocality, extrahepatic extension, grade, nodal status, and age (MEGNA) prognostic score in the internal validation group. D Online model deployment based on the GBM prediction. LNM, lymph node metastasis