Fig. 3

Increases of intracellular ROS level and mitochondrial superoxide in the Caco-2 (a & b) and Ishikawa (c & d) cells upon treatments at 24 h. The columns represent the fold changes of ROS and mitochondrial superoxide normalised against the untreated controls. Data are mean ± SEM (N = 3 separate experiments); p values comparing treated and untreated cells were calculated using one-way ANOVA with Tukey multiple comparison post-hoc analysis; ns, not significant, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 and ****p < 0.0001. e Comparison of intracellular ROS level changes upon treatments between the Caco-2 and Ishikawa cells at 24 h. f Comparison of mitochondrial superoxide changes upon treatments between the Caco-2 and Ishikawa cells at 24 h. Data are mean ± SEM (N = 3 separate experiments); p values comparing the Caco-2 and Ishikawa cells were calculated using a two-tailed t-test; *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 and ****p < 0.0001