Fig. 1

Exercise can delay tumor progression. a The forced-treadmill-running model (exercise) is illustrated. b Experimental grouping and design: Ctrl (control group), mice with free movement for 8 weeks before inoculation and 2 weeks after tumor inoculation (n = 8); Ex-pre (exercise before tumor inoculation), mice running for 8 weeks before tumor inoculation (n = 8); Ex: (exercise before and after tumor inoculation), mice that run for 8 weeks before inoculation and 2 weeks after tumor inoculation (n = 8); Ex-post (exercise after tumor inoculation), mice running for 2 weeks after tumor inoculation (n = 8). 45 min/day, 5 days/week. Solid red lines indicate exercise treatment, and dashed black lines indicate no exercise treatment. c-e The brightfield images display tumors from the three exercise models. f Comparison of tumor weight in the Ex-pre and Ctrl mice at the end of the exercise intervention (n = 8). g Comparison of tumor weight in the Ex and Ctrl mice at the end of the exercise intervention (n = 8). h Comparison of tumor weight in the Ex-post and Ctrl mice at the end of the exercise intervention (n = 8). i-k Mean of tumor volume changes after tumor formation in the three exercise models (n = 8). l Comparison of tumor weight in the Ctrl, Ex-pre, Ex and Ex-post mice at the end of the exercise intervention (n = 8). m The brightfield images display tumors from Ctrl, Ex-pre, Ex and Ex-post mice models. n Mean of tumor volume changes after tumor formation in the Ctrl, Ex-pre, Ex and Ex-post mice models (n = 8). Results of f-k are presented as mean ± SEM. l and n were performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Statistical analysis was performed using two-tailed unpaired t tests. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001