Fig. 1

Restricted cubic spline used for evaluating the association between alcohol consumption and cardiovascular diseases. Alcohol consumption was coded using a restricted cubic spline function with four knots located at the 5th, 33rd, 67th, and 95th percentiles based on the amount of alcohol intake and was presented with the penalized B-spline function. The upper cut-offs for the amount of alcohol intake were ≥ 40 and ≥ 20 g/day for male and female participants, respectively. The confidence intervals are presented with dashed lines. Hazard ratios were calculated using Cox proportional hazards regression analysis after adjusting for age, household income, systolic blood pressure, body mass index, fasting serum glucose, total cholesterol, smoking, walking, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, Charlson comorbidity index, history of chemotherapy, and history of radiotherapy. a Cardiovascular disease risk in male participants. b Cardiovascular disease risk in female participants